African Control of Hypertension through Innovative Epidemiology and a Vibrant Ecosystem (ACHIEVE): novel strategies for accelerating hypertension control in Africa.

Hypertension is a leading preventable and controllable risk factor for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases and the leading preventable risk for death globally. With a prevalence of nearly 50% and 93% of cases uncontrolled, very little progress has been made in detecting, treating, and controlling hypertension in Africa over the past thirty years. We propose the African Control of Hypertension through Innovative Epidemiology and a Vibrant Ecosystem (ACHIEVE) to implement the HEARTS package for improved surveillance, prevention, treatment/acute care of hypertension, and rehabilitation of those with hypertension complications across the life course. The ecosystem will apply the principles of an iterative implementation cycle by developing and deploying pragmatic solutions through the contextualization of interventions tailored to navigate barriers and enhance facilitators to deliver maximum impact through effective communication and active participation of all stakeholders in the implementation environment. Ten key strategic actions are proposed for implementation to reduce the burden of hypertension in Africa.

It is strongly recommended to not conduct, fund, or publish research studies that use spot urine samples with estimating equations to assess individuals' sodium (salt) intake in association with health outcomes: a policy statement of the World Hypertension League, International Society of Hypertension and Resolve to Save Lives.

Spot urine samples with estimating equations have been used to assess individuals' sodium (salt) intake in association with health outcomes. There is large random and systematic error in estimating sodium intake using this method and spurious health outcome associations. Substantial controversy has resulted from false claims the method is valid. Hence, the World Hypertension League, International Society of Hypertension and Resolve to Save Lives, supported by 21 other health organizations, have issued this policy statement that strongly recommends that research using spot urine samples with estimating equations to assess individuals' sodium (salt) intake in association with health outcomes should not be conducted, funded or published. Literature reviews on the health impacts of reducing dietary sodium that include studies that have used spot and short duration timed urine samples with estimating equations need to explicitly acknowledge that the method is not recommended to be used and is associated with spurious health outcome associations.

Developing population-based hypertension control programs.

Hypertension remains the leading cause of cardiovascular disease globally despite the availability of safe and effective treatments. Unfortunately, many barriers exist to controlling hypertension, including a lack of effective screening and awareness, an inability to access treatment and challenges with its management when it is treated. Addressing these barriers is complex and requires engaging in a systematic and sustained approach across communities over time. This analysis aims to describe the key elements needed to create an effective delivery system for hypertension control. A successful system requires political will and supportive leadership at all levels of an organization, including at the point of care delivery (office or clinic), in the health care system, and at regional, state and national levels. Effective screening and outreach systems are necessary to identify individuals not previously diagnosed with hypertension, and a system for follow up and tracking is needed after people are diagnosed. Implementing simple protocols for treating hypertension can reduce confusion among providers and increase treatment efficiency. Ensuring easy access to safe, effective and affordable medications can increase blood pressure control and potentially decrease health care system costs. Task-sharing among members of the health care team can expand the services that are delivered. Finally, monitoring of and reporting on the performance of the health care team are needed to learn from those who are doing well, disseminate ideas to those in need of improvement and identify individual patients who need outreach or additional care. Successful large-scale hypertension programs in different settings share many of these key elements and serve as examples to improve systems of hypertension care delivery throughout the world.

A pesar de la disponibilidad de tratamientos seguros y efectivos, la hipertensión sigue siendo la principal causa de enfermedad cardiovascular a nivel mundial. Lamentablemente, el control de la hipertensión enfrenta muchos obstáculos, como la falta de detección y concientización efectivas, la incapacidad de acceder al tratamiento y los retos que plantea su manejo cuando se recibe tratamiento. Resulta complejo abordar estos obstáculos; se debe adoptar un enfoque sistemático y sostenido en todas las comunidades a lo largo del tiempo. El presente análisis tiene como objetivo describir los elementos clave necesarios para crear un sistema de atención eficaz para el control de la hipertensión. Un sistema adecuado precisa voluntad política y un liderazgo que brinde apoyo en todos los niveles de una organización, incluido el punto donde se presta la atención (consultorio o clínica), el sistema de atención de salud y a nivel regional, estatal y nacional. Se necesitan sistemas efectivos de detección y de alcance comunitario para encontrar a las personas sin diagnóstico previo de hipertensión, así como un sistema para el seguimiento y la localización una vez han sido diagnosticadas. La aplicación de protocolos simples para tratar la hipertensión puede reducir la confusión entre los proveedores y aumentar la eficiencia del tratamiento. Garantizar un acceso fácil a medicamentos seguros, efectivos y asequibles puede aumentar el control de la presión arterial y potencialmente disminuir los costos para el sistema de atención de salud. La distribución de tareas entre los miembros del equipo de atención de salud permite expandir los servicios que se prestan. Finalmente, es necesario dar seguimiento al desempeño del equipo de atención de salud y presentar información al respecto, a fin de aprender de las buenas prácticas, difundir ideas entre quienes necesitan mejorar y determinar a cuáles pacientes se debe llegar y cuáles necesitan atención adicional. Los programas de hipertensión a gran escala con buenos resultados en diferentes entornos comparten muchos de estos elementos clave y sirven como ejemplos para mejorar la atención de la hipertensión en todo el mundo.

A hipertensão continua sendo a principal causa de doenças cardiovasculares no mundo, apesar da disponibilidade de tratamentos seguros e eficazes. Infelizmente, existem muitas barreiras para o controle da hipertensão, incluindo a falta de rastreamento e a conscientização eficazes, a incapacidade de acesso ao tratamento e desafios de conduta clínica quando ela é tratada. A abordagem dessas barreiras é complexa e requer um enfoque sistemático e sustentado em diferentes comunidades ao longo do tempo. Esta análise tem como objetivo descrever os elementos-chave necessários para criar um sistema eficaz de prestação de intervenções para o controle da hipertensão. Um sistema de sucesso requer vontade política e liderança que o apoie em todos os níveis de uma organização, inclusive no ponto da prestação de cuidados (consultório ou clínica), no sistema de saúde e nos níveis regional, estadual e nacional. Sistemas eficazes de triagem e acolhida são necessários para identificar indivíduos com hipertensão não diagnosticada, e um sistema de acompanhamento e rastreamento após o diagnóstico se faz igualmente necessário. A implementação de protocolos simples para o tratamento da hipertensão pode reduzir a confusão entre os profissionais de saúde e aumentar a eficiência do tratamento. Garantir o fácil acesso a medicamentos seguros, eficazes e acessíveis pode aumentar o controle da pressão arterial e potencialmente diminuir os custos do sistema de saúde. A divisão de tarefas entre os integrantes da equipe de saúde pode expandir os serviços prestados. Finalmente, é necessário monitorar e informar acerca do desempenho da equipe de saúde para aprender com aqueles que estão indo bem, disseminar ideias para aqueles que precisam melhorar e identificar pacientes individuais que precisam de ajuda ou cuidados adicionais. Programas bem-sucedidos de controle da hipertensão em larga escala em diferentes ambientes compartilham muitos desses elementos-chave e servem como exemplos para melhorar os sistemas de atenção à hipertensão em todo o mundo.

Developing population-based hypertension control programs

[ABSTRACT]. Hypertension remains the leading cause of cardiovascular disease globally despite the availability of safe and effective treatments. Unfortunately, many barriers exist to controlling hypertension, including a lack of effective screening and awareness, an inability to access treatment and challenges with its management when it is treated. Addressing these barriers is complex and requires engaging in a systematic and sustained approach across communities over time. This analysis aims to describe the key elements needed to create an effective delivery system for hypertension control. A successful system requires political will and supportive leadership at all levels of an organization, including at the point of care delivery (office or clinic), in the health care system, and at regional, state and national levels. Effective screening and outreach systems are necessary to identify individuals not previously diagnosed with hypertension, and a system for follow up and tracking is needed after people are diagnosed. Implementing simple protocols for treating hypertension can reduce confusion among providers and increase treatment efficiency. Ensuring easy access to safe, effective and affordable medica- tions can increase blood pressure control and potentially decrease health care system costs. Task-sharing among members of the health care team can expand the services that are delivered. Finally, monitoring of and reporting on the performance of the health care team are needed to learn from those who are doing well, disseminate ideas to those in need of improvement and identify individual patients who need outreach or additional care. Successful large-scale hypertension programs in different settings share many of these key elements and serve as examples to improve systems of hypertension care delivery throughout the world.

[RESUMEN]. A pesar de la disponibilidad de tratamientos seguros y efectivos, la hipertensión sigue siendo la principal causa de enfermedad cardiovascular a nivel mundial. Lamentablemente, el control de la hipertensión enfrenta muchos obstáculos, como la falta de detección y concientización efectivas, la incapacidad de acceder al tratamiento y los retos que plantea su manejo cuando se recibe tratamiento. Resulta complejo abordar estos obstáculos; se debe adoptar un enfoque sistemático y sostenido en todas las comunidades a lo largo del tiempo. El presente análisis tiene como objetivo describir los elementos clave necesarios para crear un sistema de atención eficaz para el control de la hipertensión. Un sistema adecuado precisa voluntad política y un liderazgo que brinde apoyo en todos los niveles de una organización, incluido el punto donde se presta la atención (consultorio o clínica), el sistema de atención de salud y a nivel regional, estatal y nacional. Se necesitan sistemas efectivos de detección y de alcance comunitario para encontrar a las personas sin diag- nóstico previo de hipertensión, así como un sistema para el seguimiento y la localización una vez han sido diagnosticadas. La aplicación de protocolos simples para tratar la hipertensión puede reducir la confusión entre los proveedores y aumentar la eficiencia del tratamiento. Garantizar un acceso fácil a medicamentos seguros, efectivos y asequibles puede aumentar el control de la presión arterial y potencialmente disminuir los costos para el sistema de atención de salud. La distribución de tareas entre los miembros del equipo de atención de salud permite expandir los servicios que se prestan. Finalmente, es necesario dar seguimiento al desempeño del equipo de atención de salud y presentar información al respecto, a fin de aprender de las buenas prácticas, difundir ideas entre quienes necesitan mejorar y determinar a cuáles pacientes se debe llegar y cuáles necesitan atención adicional. Los programas de hipertensión a gran escala con buenos resultados en diferentes entornos comparten muchos de estos elementos clave y sirven como ejemplos para mejorar la atención de la hipertensión en todo el mundo.

[RESUMO]. A hipertensão continua sendo a principal causa de doenças cardiovasculares no mundo, apesar da dis- ponibilidade de tratamentos seguros e eficazes. Infelizmente, existem muitas barreiras para o controle da hipertensão, incluindo a falta de rastreamento e a conscientização eficazes, a incapacidade de acesso ao tratamento e desafios de conduta clínica quando ela é tratada. A abordagem dessas barreiras é complexa e requer um enfoque sistemático e sustentado em diferentes comunidades ao longo do tempo. Esta análise tem como objetivo descrever os elementos-chave necessários para criar um sistema eficaz de prestação de intervenções para o controle da hipertensão. Um sistema de sucesso requer vontade política e liderança que o apoie em todos os níveis de uma organização, inclusive no ponto da prestação de cuidados (consultório ou clínica), no sistema de saúde e nos níveis regional, estadual e nacional. Sistemas eficazes de triagem e acolhida são necessários para identificar indivíduos com hipertensão não diagnosticada, e um sistema de acompanhamento e rastreamento após o diagnóstico se faz igualmente necessário. A implementação de protocolos simples para o tratamento da hipertensão pode reduzir a confusão entre os profissionais de saúde e aumentar a eficiência do tratamento. Garantir o fácil acesso a medicamentos seguros, eficazes e acessíveis pode aumentar o controle da pressão arterial e potencialmente diminuir os custos do sistema de saúde. A divisão de tarefas entre os integrantes da equipe de saúde pode expandir os serviços prestados. Finalmente, é necessário monitorar e informar acerca do desempenho da equipe de saúde para aprender com aqueles que estão indo bem, disseminar ideias para aqueles que precisam melhorar e identificar pacientes individuais que precisam de ajuda ou cuidados adicionais. Programas bem-sucedidos de controle da hipertensão em larga escala em diferentes ambientes compartilham muitos desses elementos-chave e servem como exem- plos para melhorar os sistemas de atenção à hipertensão em todo o mundo.

How to Improve Awareness, Treatment, and Control of Hypertension in Africa, and How to Reduce Its Consequences: A Call to Action From the World Hypertension League.

Hypertension is the leading preventable risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and disability globally. In low- and middle-income countries hypertension has a major social impact, increasing the disease burden and costs for national health systems. The present call to action aims to stimulate all African countries to adopt several solutions to achieve better hypertension management. The following 3 goals should be achieved in Africa by 2030: (1) 80% of adults with high blood pressure in Africa are diagnosed; (2) 80% of diagnosed hypertensives, that is, 64% of all hypertensives, are treated; and (3) 80% of treated hypertensive patients are controlled. To achieve these aims, we call on individuals and organizations from government, private sector, health care, and civil society in Africa and indeed on all Africans to undertake a few specific high priority actions. The aim is to improve the detection, diagnosis, management, and control of hypertension, now considered to be the leading preventable killer in Africa.

Developing population-based hypertension control programs / Creación de programas de control de la hipertensión basados en la población / Desenvolvimento de programas de controle da hipertensão de base populacional

ABSTRACT Hypertension remains the leading cause of cardiovascular disease globally despite the availability of safe and effective treatments. Unfortunately, many barriers exist to controlling hypertension, including a lack of effective screening and awareness, an inability to access treatment and challenges with its management when it is treated. Addressing these barriers is complex and requires engaging in a systematic and sustained approach across communities over time. This analysis aims to describe the key elements needed to create an effective delivery system for hypertension control. A successful system requires political will and supportive leadership at all levels of an organization, including at the point of care delivery (office or clinic), in the health care system, and at regional, state and national levels. Effective screening and outreach systems are necessary to identify individuals not previously diagnosed with hypertension, and a system for follow up and tracking is needed after people are diagnosed. Implementing simple protocols for treating hypertension can reduce confusion among providers and increase treatment efficiency. Ensuring easy access to safe, effective and affordable medications can increase blood pressure control and potentially decrease health care system costs. Task-sharing among members of the health care team can expand the services that are delivered. Finally, monitoring of and reporting on the performance of the health care team are needed to learn from those who are doing well, disseminate ideas to those in need of improvement and identify individual patients who need outreach or additional care. Successful large-scale hypertension programs in different settings share many of these key elements and serve as examples to improve systems of hypertension care delivery throughout the world.

RESUMEN A pesar de la disponibilidad de tratamientos seguros y efectivos, la hipertensión sigue siendo la principal causa de enfermedad cardiovascular a nivel mundial. Lamentablemente, el control de la hipertensión enfrenta muchos obstáculos, como la falta de detección y concientización efectivas, la incapacidad de acceder al tratamiento y los retos que plantea su manejo cuando se recibe tratamiento. Resulta complejo abordar estos obstáculos; se debe adoptar un enfoque sistemático y sostenido en todas las comunidades a lo largo del tiempo. El presente análisis tiene como objetivo describir los elementos clave necesarios para crear un sistema de atención eficaz para el control de la hipertensión. Un sistema adecuado precisa voluntad política y un liderazgo que brinde apoyo en todos los niveles de una organización, incluido el punto donde se presta la atención (consultorio o clínica), el sistema de atención de salud y a nivel regional, estatal y nacional. Se necesitan sistemas efectivos de detección y de alcance comunitario para encontrar a las personas sin diagnóstico previo de hipertensión, así como un sistema para el seguimiento y la localización una vez han sido diagnosticadas. La aplicación de protocolos simples para tratar la hipertensión puede reducir la confusión entre los proveedores y aumentar la eficiencia del tratamiento. Garantizar un acceso fácil a medicamentos seguros, efectivos y asequibles puede aumentar el control de la presión arterial y potencialmente disminuir los costos para el sistema de atención de salud. La distribución de tareas entre los miembros del equipo de atención de salud permite expandir los servicios que se prestan. Finalmente, es necesario dar seguimiento al desempeño del equipo de atención de salud y presentar información al respecto, a fin de aprender de las buenas prácticas, difundir ideas entre quienes necesitan mejorar y determinar a cuáles pacientes se debe llegar y cuáles necesitan atención adicional. Los programas de hipertensión a gran escala con buenos resultados en diferentes entornos comparten muchos de estos elementos clave y sirven como ejemplos para mejorar la atención de la hipertensión en todo el mundo.

RESUMO A hipertensão continua sendo a principal causa de doenças cardiovasculares no mundo, apesar da disponibilidade de tratamentos seguros e eficazes. Infelizmente, existem muitas barreiras para o controle da hipertensão, incluindo a falta de rastreamento e a conscientização eficazes, a incapacidade de acesso ao tratamento e desafios de conduta clínica quando ela é tratada. A abordagem dessas barreiras é complexa e requer um enfoque sistemático e sustentado em diferentes comunidades ao longo do tempo. Esta análise tem como objetivo descrever os elementos-chave necessários para criar um sistema eficaz de prestação de intervenções para o controle da hipertensão. Um sistema de sucesso requer vontade política e liderança que o apoie em todos os níveis de uma organização, inclusive no ponto da prestação de cuidados (consultório ou clínica), no sistema de saúde e nos níveis regional, estadual e nacional. Sistemas eficazes de triagem e acolhida são necessários para identificar indivíduos com hipertensão não diagnosticada, e um sistema de acompanhamento e rastreamento após o diagnóstico se faz igualmente necessário. A implementação de protocolos simples para o tratamento da hipertensão pode reduzir a confusão entre os profissionais de saúde e aumentar a eficiência do tratamento. Garantir o fácil acesso a medicamentos seguros, eficazes e acessíveis pode aumentar o controle da pressão arterial e potencialmente diminuir os custos do sistema de saúde. A divisão de tarefas entre os integrantes da equipe de saúde pode expandir os serviços prestados. Finalmente, é necessário monitorar e informar acerca do desempenho da equipe de saúde para aprender com aqueles que estão indo bem, disseminar ideias para aqueles que precisam melhorar e identificar pacientes individuais que precisam de ajuda ou cuidados adicionais. Programas bem-sucedidos de controle da hipertensão em larga escala em diferentes ambientes compartilham muitos desses elementos-chave e servem como exemplos para melhorar os sistemas de atenção à hipertensão em todo o mundo.

Frequency of laboratory testing and associated abnormalities in patients with hypertension.

Clinical practice guidelines recommend several routine laboratory tests in patients diagnosed with hypertension. However, the rates of clinically relevant laboratory abnormalities are unknown. Therefore, we conducted a retrospective cohort study using administrative and laboratory data of patients diagnosed with hypertension between April 2010 and March 2015 in Alberta, Canada. Laboratory investigations for renal function, serum electrolytes (sodium and potassium), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and diabetes (fasting blood glucose and hemoglobin A1c), measured within 1 year of diagnosis, were examined, and the frequency of abnormalities determined. A total of 225 296 cases of incident hypertension were identified. Of these, 74.3% received at least one of the four guideline-recommended laboratory tests, but only 42.3% received all four tests. Patients who received any testing, compared to subjects who did not, were on average older (median age 55.9 vs 51.2 years, P < .001) and had more comorbidity (14.5% vs 2.8% with a Charlson comorbidity index ≥ 3, P < .001). Laboratory abnormalities with the potential to affect clinical decision-making were more common among multi-comorbid patients. Patients with renal dysfunction (6.7% vs 11.6%, 26.3%, P < .001), electrolyte abnormalities (9.8% vs 12.6%, 20.5%, P < .001), and diabetes (13.4% vs 25.1% vs 38.8%, P < .001) were found in patients with Charlson scores of 0 vs 1-2 vs ≥3, respectively. Our study found most patients diagnosed with hypertension received some laboratory testing, but rates of laboratory testing and frequency of abnormalities varied by clinical context. Testing and abnormalities detected were both more common among older patients and patients with comorbidities.

Progress on sodium reduction in South Korea.

INTRODUCTION: High dietary sodium is a leading contributor to hypertension, and hypertension is the leading underlying cause of death globally. There is a robust body of evidence supporting the health benefits of sodium reduction. Sodium intake in South Korea is high, with about half the population consuming >4000 mg/day, twice the recommended upper limit. METHODS: In 2012, South Korea implemented its National Plan to Reduce Sodium Intake, with a goal of reducing population sodium consumption by 20%, to 3900 mg/day, by 2020. The plan included five key components: (1) a consumer awareness campaign designed to change food consumption behaviours; (2) increased availability of low-sodium foods at schools and worksites; (3) increased availability of low-sodium meals in restaurants; (4) voluntary reformulation of processed foods to lower sodium content; and (5) development of low-sodium recipes for food prepared at home. Monitoring and evaluation included tracking sodium intake and sources of dietary sodium using the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. RESULTS: By 2014, South Korea had reduced dietary sodium consumption among adults by 23.7% compared to a survey conducted in 2010 prior to implementation of a nationwide salt reduction campaign that used this comprehensive, multipronged approach. The reductions in sodium intake were accompanied by reductions in population blood pressure and hypertension prevalence. Although causal associations between the sodium reduction programme and reduced sodium intake cannot be made, the declines occurred with the introduction of the programme. CONCLUSION: Multicomponent interventions have great potential to reduce population sodium intake. Lessons learnt from South Korea could be applied to other countries and are likely very relevant to other Asian countries with similar food sources and consumption profiles.

Worsening Hypertension Awareness, Treatment, and Control Rates in Canadian Women Between 2007 and 2017.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension continues to be the leading cause of preventable death and disability. The objective of this study was to examine hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control for women and men in Canada over the last decade. METHODS: A nationally representative, cross-sectional study was conducted using the Canadian Health Measures Survey (2007-2017). Using blood pressure readings from each respondent, along with a self-reported history of high blood pressure and active medications, the rates of hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control were calculated for women and men. RESULTS: A total of 5,794,641 people were identified to have hypertension from 2007 to 2017, representing 23.1% (95% confidence interval [CI], 21.9%-24.2%) of the Canadian adult population with no appreciable change in prevalence over the decade. Overall awareness, treatment, and control were 83.5% (95% CI, 81.5%-85.4%), 78.9% (95% CI, 76.2%-81.6%), and 65.4% (95% CI, 62.4%-68.4%), respectively, with no significant changes in men from 2007 to 2017. Conversely, in women, substantial deteriorations in awareness (72.2% [95% CI, 64.1%-80.2%] in 2016-2017 vs 85.0% [95% CI, 82.4%-87.7%] in 2007-2015), treatment (65.2% [95% CI, 57.6%-72.8%] vs 82.2% [95% CI, 79.4%-85.1%]), and control (49.2% [95% CI, 39.7%-58.7%] vs 67.0% [95% CI, 63.9%-70.1%]) were found. CONCLUSIONS: After plateauing early in the 2000s, Canadian hypertension treatment and control rates have declined in the past decade, largely in women. Renewed collaborative efforts by key stakeholders are urgently needed to address this increase in preventable risk for cardiovascular disease.

Scaling up effective treatment of hypertension-A pathfinder for universal health coverage.

High blood pressure is the world's leading cause of death, but despite treatment for hypertension being safe, effective, and low cost, most people with hypertension worldwide do not have it controlled. This article summarizes lessons learned in the first 2 years of the Resolve to Save Lives (RTSL) hypertension management program, operated in coordination with the World Health Organization (WHO) and other partners. Better diagnosis, treatment, and continuity of care are all needed to improve control rates, and five necessary components have been recommended by RTSL, WHO and other partners as being essential for a successful hypertension control program. Several hurdles to hypertension control have been identified, with most related to limitations in the health care system rather than to patient behavior. Treatment according to standardized protocols should be started as soon as hypertension is diagnosed, and medical practices and health systems must closely monitor patient progress and system performance. Improvement in hypertension management and control, along with elimination of artificial trans fat and reduction of dietary sodium consumption, will improve many aspects of primary care, contribute to goals for universal health coverage, and could save 100 million lives worldwide over the next 30 years.

The Science of Salt: A global review on changes in sodium levels in foods.

This review aims to summarize and synthesize studies reporting on changes in sodium levels in packaged food products, restaurant foods, and hospital or school meals, as a result of salt reduction interventions. Studies were extracted from those published in the Science of Salt Weekly between June 2013 and February 2018. Twenty-four studies were identified: 17 assessed the changes in packaged foods, four in restaurant foods, two in hospital or school meals, and one in both packaged and restaurant foods. Three types of interventions were evaluated as part of the studies: voluntary reductions (including targets), labeling, and interventions in institutional settings. Decreases in sodium were observed in all studies (n = 8) that included the same packaged foods matched at two time points, and in the studies carried out in hospitals and schools. However, there was little to no change in mean sodium levels in restaurant foods. The pooled analysis of change in sodium levels in packaged foods showed a decrease in sodium in unmatched food products (-36 mg/100 g, 95% CI -51 to -20 mg/100 g) and in five food categories-breakfast cereals, breads, processed meats, crisps and snacks, and soups. Twenty-two of the 24 studies were from high-income countries, limiting the applicability of the findings to lower resource settings.

Science of Salt: A regularly updated systematic review of salt and health outcomes studies (April to October 2018).

The Science of Salt reviews identify, summarize, and critically appraise published studies on dietary salt and health outcomes according to pre-specified methods. This review covers the period April 3 to October 30, 2018. Here, nineteen studies that fit pre-specified criteria for review and summary are included. Three of these, one prospective cohort study, one randomized controlled trial, and a post hoc analysis of the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) sodium trial fulfilled the quality criteria for detailed critical appraisal, including risk of bias assessment, and commentary. Two trials demonstrated a positive association between salt intake and blood pressure. In a cohort of older Italians, increased risk of total mortality was observed with salt intake less than ~16 g/d (6300 mg sodium/d) at baseline; no association existed for incident cardiovascular disease (CVD) or CVD mortality. The paucity of published studies which met our criteria for methodological quality is of concern.

The Science of Salt: Updating the evidence on global estimates of salt intake.

The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2010 study estimated national salt intake for 187 countries based on data available up to 2010. The purpose of this review was to identify studies that have measured salt intake in a nationally representative population using the 24-hour urine collection method since 2010, with a view to updating evidence on population salt intake globally. Studies published from January 2011 to September 2018 were searched for from MEDLINE, Scopus, and Embase databases using relevant terms. Studies that provided nationally representative estimates of salt intake among the healthy adult population based on the 24-hour urine collection were included. Measured salt intake was extracted and compared with the GBD estimates. Of the 115 identified studies assessed for eligibility, 13 studies were included: Four studies were from Europe, and one each from the United States, Canada, Benin, India, Samoa, Fiji, Barbados, Australia, and New Zealand. Mean daily salt intake ranged from 6.75 g/d in Barbados to 10.66 g/d in Portugal. Measured mean population salt intake in Italy, England, Canada, and Barbados was lower, and in Fiji, Samoa, and Benin was higher, in recent surveys compared to the GBD 2010 estimates. Despite global targets to reduce population salt intake, only 13 countries have published nationally representative salt intake data since the GBD 2010 study. In all countries, salt intake levels remain higher than the World Health Organization's recommendation, highlighting the need for additional global efforts to lower salt intake and monitor salt reduction strategies.